I. Introduction

After the recent COVID-19 pandemic, online video services (OTT: over-the-top) have boomed, and the power of streaming services has become stronger with Apple TV+ winning Best Picture for CODA (2021) at the 94th Academy Awards and Netflix winning Best Director for The Power of the Dog (2021). In particular, after the airing of Netflix’s original feature, Bridgerton (2020), corset searches surged by 123 percent, highlighting a rise in Regency era-inspired clothing styles, which led to the term Regencycore (Yu, 2021). Regencycore denotes a style of clothing inspired by that of the British Regency era and was named one of the British Collins Dictionary’s 2020 Top 10 words of the year. More than 100,000 social media posts were generated using the Regencycore term (Yu, 2021). With this increased interest analyzing OTT services’ Regency-era period dramas offers an important window into this style trend. This paper considers the costumes of Netflix’s original work Bridgerton, which is the most relevant among current OTT offerings. Along with the rapidly increasing number of OTT dramas, costume research on dramas is also linked to the costumes industry, which is necessary to revitalize the OTT industry.

Previous studies on movie costumes through video media have analyzed the design and symbolism of underwear shown in movie costumes, focusing on historical dramas set in Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries (Kim, 2011), and magic realism characteristics expressed in the costumes of the Tarsem Singh film Snow White (Yang & Lee, 2017). Research on 19th century visual materials includes an exploration of late 19th century French costumes in Moulin Rouge (Lee & Park, 2002), research on costume design in Emma (Park & Cho, 1999), costume color analysis of the movie Little Women (Bae, Song, Choi, & Kim, 2021), costume and color symbolism in the movie Titanic (Kim, 2009), expressive effect of Victorian costumes in period drama (Kim, 2023), and influence of Art Nouveau on Crimson Peak (Kim, 2022). However, very few studies of costumes in films set in the 19th century have examined the influence of the Regency era, which have many changes in the style of costumes. Additionally, research before the COVID-19 pandemic focused on films seen in theaters, but more recent research, including a study on the expression of Victorian costumes in period dramas, has explored online offerings rather than screenings in theaters (Kim, 2023). The purpose of this study is to analyze the distinctive characteristics of upper-class women’s clothing of the of the Regency era as expressed in the drama Bridgerton (2020). Some studies of pre-Regency era styles have focused on working-class clothing; however, since the Regency era was characterized by the colorful costumes of the upper class, analysis of the clothing of the upper class is important, especially given the recent rapid rise in interest in the Regency period. This study focuses on Regencycore, which is currently trending and is expected to continue to shape the fashion and cultural industries.

Ⅱ. Review of Literature

1. Social and cultural background of the Regency era

The Regency period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when the worsening mental condition of Britain’s King George Ⅲ (1760–1814) led to his eldest son. George Ⅳ (1762–1830), the eldest son of King George Ⅲ and Queen Charlotte of England, was the King of England and the King of Hanover from 1820, when his father George Ⅲ died, until his own death 10 years later. During this period, the United Kingdom dealt with the Napoleonic wars and Conference of Vienna externally as well as many domestic problems such as economic panic and labor conflicts, but needed reform was hindered by Parliament and the people’s losing trust in the crown due to the Crown Prince’s insistence on privacy (“George Ⅳ,” 2023).

The Regency style characterized the clothing, furniture, and decorative art that was in vogue during the Regency period and overlapped with the Late Empire style (1795–1825). Regency style refers to the style in England that exhibits the characteristics of Neoclassical and French Empire styles; it reveals the characteristics of Neoclassicism by mixing styles such as Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Chinese, and Rococo (Regencychandeliers, n.d). The Empire Style is one of the modern French decorative styles. Neoclassicism is an art movement, modeled on Greek and Roman classics, that dominated European literature and art from the end of the 18th century before and after the French Revolution to the early 19th century and emphasized form and reason rather than emotion before the advent of Romanticism (Regencychandeliers, n.d). During the Regency period, the Industrial Revolution progressed and new technologies such as steam engines and printing changed lives, but aristocratic culture developed along with Romanticism, widening the gap between rich and poor. The reign of Napoleon transformed classical-style clothing into symbols of power and extravagance (Go, 2007). After Napoleon ascended to the position of emperor in May 1804, the French enactment developed a colorful and luxurious life again. The rise of economic power against the backdrop of the textile industry at this time brought about the revival of aristocratic tastes and luxury of costumes (Lee, Choi, & Choi, 1996).

2. Costumes of the Regency era

Women’s clothing during this period was in transition, with a desire for freedom and convenience moving fashion away from corsets and hoops, and empire silhouettes emphasizing the chest with high waistlines and column skirts became popular. Advances in weaving technology made it possible to produce thin fabrics, creating a drapery silhouette like a costume from ancient Greek and Roman times. Napoleon’s Empress Josephine de Beauharnais was the fashion leader of this period, and she created a new aristocratic- style costume using simple silhouettes, elegant and natural fabric folds, and colorful embroidery (Bae, Baek, & Oh, 2016). Fashion culture, led by nobles since the Renaissance, was removed during the French Revolution, resulting in the disappearance of the Rococo style and the emergence of the neoclassical style (Bae et al., 2016). In the Regency era, the chemise gown, a simple H-line silhouette that imitates the ancient Greek chiton, became popular due to the influence of post-revolution Neoclassicism. In the early days, it was characterized by simple decorative shapes such as a high waist and short puff sleeves with a long, relatively narrow skirt. Most of the chemise gowns were white, embroidered with a wide range of decorative hems or embellished with paisley patterns. The arms, exposed by the chemise gown, were covered with long gloves and shawls to highlight the wearer’s femininity. After the French Revolution, the chemise gown was shaped with a wider chest and used thin muslin (Chung, 1997).

The empire dress was a dignified court gown resembling an early Greek style of chemise gown with long sleeves and matte material. In addition, a variety of sleeves and long trains at the back of the waistline were added to the colorful, elegant style, and a collerette collar decoration was added. Contrasting with the light dress color, a different color of decorative skirt was attached like a train at the back. The decorative skirt was combined with the body to create the effect of wearing two dresses. This decorative skirt was composed of several forms, of which the knee-length one was a tunic type (Chung, 1997). It had a simple classical design, expressed bourgeois taste with colorful fabrics and embroidery decorations, and later added a mameluke sleeve. Under the gowns, Regency era women wore no corsets or petticoats in the Neoclassical period and long corsets and chemises to sharpen body contours under the empire dress in the later years of the era.

The three types of coats commonly worn were the spencer, the pelisse, and the redingote. The first was very popular. Like the masculine version, it was waist-length and sometimes worn open, sometimes buttoned up the front, but differed in being made of velvet or satin (Yarwood, 1961). Women wore a spencer with a tight sleeve and a standing collar for the overcoat, a canezou with long sleeves that were longer than the spencer style and covered the back of the hand, a pelisse that was as long as a 19th century gown silhouette, a redingote with a cap collar and long sleeves that covered the back of the hand, and a shawl with a cape collar. In the 1810s, classical influences applied to hairstyles in addition to costumes. During the decade from 1810 to the 1820s, classical styles of gowns changed around 1815. The fabric gradually changed from a transparent, thin muslin to a thick, opaque, pattern-less fabric. The gowns became shorter, with ankle lengths with no trains predominating. The skirt has a lot of wrinkles and the hem of the skirt has become wider (Shin, 2006).

Following Napoleon’s decline around 1812, the classical style of clothing associated with his era gradually transitioned into new silhouettes. The shoulders were widened, upper sleeves inflated, waist tightened, and the width of the skirt gradually widened, transforming from a straight silhouette to a Gothic style with curves and angles. The pattern showed aristocratic splendor and at the same time created a romantic atmosphere (Kim, Ahn, & Cho, 2010). For women’s hairstyles, Greek hairstyles were popular, with tight curls partially hanging down and hair pulled back and tied with ribbons (Shin, 2006). With the simplicity of hairstyles, interest in hats increased, and bonnets with colorful decorations became popular. In order to maintain a natural clothing style, jewelry was worn less, but women wore necklace decorations on empire dresses (Chung, 1997). Shawls were made of soft cashmere, silk, and muslin. Paisley patterns were very popular, and reticules, small handbags with straps, were essential (Hisour, n.d).

3. Synopsis of Bridgerton

Set in the Regency era, Season 1 of Bridgerton was directed by Chris Van Dusen and produced by Shondaland. Season 1 of Bridgerton is an adaptation of The Duchess from Julia Quinn’s best-selling novel series (Yang, 2021). It features Phoebe Dynevor as Daphne Bridgerton, Regé-Jean Page as Simon Bassett, and Golda Rosheuvel as Queen Charlotte. The costumes were designed by Ellen Mirojnick, who also designed the costumes for the films Basic Instinct, Showgirls (1995), The Greatest Showman (2017), and Maleficent (2014). Chris Van Dusen drew a contrast between the two main families in the drama with their clothing colors. The Featherington sisters’ costumes are dominated by intense colors such as green, yellow, and orange, while the Bridgerton family’s costumes are blue and pastel pink (Yu, 2021). Marc Elliott Pilcher, who was in charge of hair, won the 73rd (2021) Emmy Award for Outstanding Hair Styling. To emphasize the glamour of the age, a total of 7,500 costume pieces, including dresses, tops, cloaks, and hats, were used for the eight episodes of the drama, and Peavy Dinver, who plays the main character, Daphne, wore more than 100 dresses to show the luxury and beauty of glamorous upper-class society (Lee, 2021). Each season of the show is a story of the love and happiness of one of the eight Bridgerton brothers and sisters, set in upper-class London in the early Regency era, in 1813 (Jung, 2022). Main character Daphne does not like avowed bachelor Duke Simon Basset when they first meet at a ball, but they become attracted to each other when they become involved in a contractual relationship. Daphne is asked to marry Prince Friedrich through the introduction of Queen Charlotte, but Simon and Daphne convey their feelings to the queen and obtain permission to marry. During their honeymoon, the couple argue about the possibility of children. Daphne learns and understands Simon’s reasons for not wanting children, and Simon relents; Daphne gives birth to a son.

Ⅲ. Research Method

This study first reviewed the social and cultural background of the Regency period of Britain’s King George Ⅳ (1811–1820), including literature related to costumes, prior research, and sites specializing in period movies and films. Then, the first season of Netflix’s original Bridgerton (2020) was selected for analysis, as it has recently garnered the most interest among OTT services and is meaningful as a costume study. The Chrome extension program ‘GoFullPage 7.2’ was used for image capture, with the resolution set to 150 DPI. Among the many families portrayed in the show, two families that accounted for an important proportion of the plot and were suitable for upper-class costume analysis were selected. One of the two families, the Bridgerton family was selected because the Bridgerton daughter Daphne is the season’s protagonist, and the other family, the Featherington family, was selected from among the supporting cast families because its character and costume characteristics were clear. An analysis of the costumes of Daphne and Penelope, important figures representing each family, was conducted. Among the total images captured from eight episodes, duplicates were excluded, leaving 41 Daphne costumes and 31 Penelope costumes that could be analyzed. Pajamas, underwear, and casual leisurewear were excluded, leaving 25 Daphne and 20 Penelope costumes representing the characteristics of the Regency era for analysis. The major costume styles representing the definitive Regency characteristics were selected for the final costume analysis. The characteristics of women’s costumes of the upper class of the Regency era were analyzed, including clothing accessories, hairstyles, and items in addition to component elements such as silhouettes, colors, materials, and patterns.

Previous studies on movie costumes through video media include the design and symbolism of underwear shown in movie costumes (Kim, 2011), and Magic realism characteristics expressed in the costumes of the Tarsem Singh film ‘Snow White’ (Yang & Lee, 2017). Research on 19th century visual materials includes late 19th century French costumes expressed in ‘Moulin Rouge’ (Lee & Park, 2002), costume design research on Emma images (Park & Cho, 1999), Costume color analysis of the movie ‘Little women’ (Bae et al., 2021), Costume and color symbolism of the movie ‘TITANIC’ (Kim, 2009). However, there are very few studies on the background of the Regency era in the study of 19th century film costumes, which have many changes in the style of costumes. As such, research before COVID-19 was conducted on films seen in theaters, but recently, rather than screenings in theaters, research on online images such as the expression effect of Victorian costumes in period dramas (Kim, 2023) is being conducted. The purpose of this study is to analyze the formative characteristics of the women’s clothing of the upper class of the Regency era expressed in the drama ‘Bridgerton (2020)’.

In this study, before the Regency era, civic clothing was led, but since the Regency era is a time when the colorful costumes of the upper class thrive, the analysis of the clothing of the upper class is important. Along with the recent rapid interest in Regency, the analysis of the clothing research of the upper class of the Regency era is significant. This study has become the medium of Regency Core, which is currently the issue, is expected to be involved in the revitalization of the fashion and cultural industries reflecting the recent trends.

Ⅳ. Results and Discussion

The following analysis of upper-class fashion in Bridgerton centers on Daphne Bridgerton and Penelope Featherington and examines the forms, colors, materials, patterns, accessories, hairstyles, and other items of women’s costume in the Regency era.

1. Daphne’s costumes

Daphne’s primary form of clothing is an empirestyle tubular dress. In the Regency era of Bridgerton, deep and wide-cut necklines, high waistlines, and puff-sleeved tubular style clothing were popular. The dress form of <Fig. 1> is a simple design composed of a high waistline and short puff sleeves. <Fig. 2> shows a form that changed the composition of the decorative skirt on the dress combined with the body to create the effect of wearing two dresses. There were several forms of this decorative skirt, of which the knee-length one was in the form of a tunic and was mainly used as nightwear. The empire-style dresses were characterized by wide and deep necklines. The types of necklines were round, square, v-neck, or trapezoidal, all exposing the chest a lot. The dress sleeves of <Fig. 2, 3, and 4> show various sleeves, including puff sleeves, cap sleeves, and tulip sleeves. The pelisse of <Fig. 5> is a straight line that does not emphasize the contours of the human body and extends to the ankles.

Daphne’s dress is mainly pastel toned: soft and calm blue, purple, ivory, and white. Among them, baby blue is the most used. Wedgwood blue, a pastel blue color used to symbolize the Bridgerton family, denotes the class and status of the family, and many of Daphne’s clothes include the family hue. In <Fig. 6> and <Fig. 7>, Daphne is wearing a pastel blue color representing the Bridgerton family, and Simon is wearing a red color representing the Hastings family. However, in <Fig. 8>, when Daphne and Duke Simon marry, Daphne wears a purple dress that mixes Simon’s family red and the Bridgerton blue, symbolizing the change in Daphne and Simon’s relationship and psychological state. Daphne’s redingote in <Fig. 9> is dark purple; <Fig. 5> and <Fig. 23> are pelisse, and the same color as the dress or dark blue-green is used. Originally, the Regency era’s spencer was emphasized in contrast to pastel tones or white dress, but as shown in <Fig. 6> and <Fig. 7> the Spencer worn in the drama was expressed naturally and elegantly in blue shades the same or similar to the dress color.

Various types of materials are represented in Daphne’s clothing. Satin, taffeta, brocade, chiffon, damask and organza are widely used, and in some cases, velvet, wool, and other fabrics were used. In <Fig. 10, 11, and 12>, the dresses are made of shiny materials such as satin, taffeta, and velvet, and represent luxury and nobility, while those in <Fig. 13> and <Fig. 14> are expressed purely and elegantly with thin materials such as chiffon, lace, and organza. In the drama, silk is used to represent the luxury of upper-class clothing in the Regency era. Thin material such as chiffon or organza is also used as an embelli-shment or for the outer layer or sleeve, as in <Fig. 13> and <Fig. 14>. Lace and jewelry were also used as embellishments, as shown in <Fig. 14>. The entire outfit is harmonized through the use of similar colors and materials as that used in the dress. The material of the redingote in <Fig. 9> is made of thick wool. Various types of patterns are shown in Daphne’s clothing. <Fig. 14> and <Fig. 16> show flower, leaf, stem, arkansas, and paisley patterns.

Accessories and hairstyles are shown in <Fig. 16>, with the shawl elegantly and harmoniously using the same or similar material as the dress. Short gloves, as in <Fig. 18> and <Fig. 23>, used various thin materials such as lace and mesh; long gloves, such as those in <Fig. 15>, were mainly made of glossy silk. The belt and reticule of <Fig. 13> and <Fig. 18> represent important accessories of the Regency period. In <Fig. 15> and <Fig. 17>, patterns of flowers and foliage were created more luxuriously in gold or beads. Also in <Fig. 15, 16, and 17>, the hairstyles are an elegant style that either hung naturally or was pinned up. The headgear most frequently worn is a shaped hat in a color similar to that of the dress, and various decorations such as jewelry, feathers, ribbons, and flowers are used. Thin and feminine necklaces are also prominent, as the empire-style gowns expose a lot of the chest.

Daphne’s clothing items include a chemise dress, empire dress, spencer, redingote, and pelisse. <Fig. 19> shows a chemise dress worn by Daphne. This dress has a silhouette that naturally stretches out, highlighting the absence of the corset and the neoclassical influence, similar to the ancient Greek style. The thin material makes up the short sleeves and long gloves or a shawl. The empire dress in <Fig. 20> is made of thick material and has a train. It is matched with long elbow gloves or a shawl of a similar color and material to the dress; short gloves made of various materials such as lace or mesh are worn with long- sleeved outfits. Luxurious materials and gold thread embroidery highlight the family’s rank and wealth. The clothing item in <Fig. 21> is a short waist- length spencer worn on top of an empire dress with a tubular silhouette. As shown in <Fig. 22> Daphne’s dark-colored redingote is worn for horseback riding. In <Fig. 23>, the pelisse with a hood is worn when going out.

2. Penelope’s costumes

All the Penelope dresses have high-waist lines and tubular silhouettes. As shown in <Fig. 24> and <Fig. 25> most of the dresses have a wide and deep round neckline and short puff sleeves. Cap sleeves are occasionally used, and many dresses are embellished on the shoulders and chest as shown in <Fig. 26>. The waist is emphasized with a belt, as shown in <Fig. 27>, and the sleeves are also decorated with materials or colors different from the body of the gown.

In <Fig. 28> and <Fig. 29>, Penelope is wearing yellow and pink colors. Penelope’s dress is mainly yellow and pink colors as shown in <Fig. 28> and <Fig. 29>. In <Fig. 30> and <Fig. 31>, Penelope is wearing a intense colors such as orange and green colors. However, in <Fig. 32>, when Penelope met the queen for the court, is wearing a white dress for the court. In <Fig. 44>, a black pelisse was worn when going out. Penelope wore long pink or white gloves and short gloves of various colors such as white, yellow, and pink. The shawl was a color that matched the outfit, and the waistline was emphasized with yellow, pink, orange, green, and black as the waistband. The Featherington family was well socialized emphasizing the look of the outfit. In other words, bright and high saturation colors such as orange and yellow, and large and colorful accessories and patterns were applied to the costumes to express the family well. Unlike the pastel colors used in the Daphne costume of Bridgerton, the Penelope costume of the Featherington used intense and colorful colors.

In the case of materials, the Penelope costume was slightly thicker than Daphne, and the pattern was large and colorful. As shown in <Fig. 33, 34, 35, and 36>, the clothing material was used in a variety of ways, such as glossy satin, taffeta, chiffon, brocade, and lace. The patterns of the <Fig. 33, 35, and 36> varied with flowers, plant leaf stem patterns, and butterfly patterns. In <Fig. 33> and <Fig. 37>, the glove materials were diverse, long gloves are mainly made of satin, and short gloves are made of satin, see-through, mesh etc.

In case of accessories, colorful gloves long or short are often used as accessories <Fig. 33> and <Fig. 37>, and shawls are extremely limited. The waistband emphasizes high-waist, and decorations such as ribbons and beads are added to the waist. <Fig. 37> emphasizes the waist with a black wide belt. In <Fig. 38>, empire-style dresses with a simple design that does not emphasize the body more than in previous eras emphasized the decorative aspects with flower decorations and waist belts. In the <Fig. 32>, a train was attached to the court dress worn when meeting the queen. In addition, reticule and mini-bags that matched the dress were worn, jewelry wore a flower-shaped or colorful and bold necklace and earrings like <Fig. 39>. In <Fig. 39> and <Fig. 40>, the hairstyles are a poodle perm style with strong curls and colorful de- corations with flowers, large ribbons, feathers, and tiara.

Penelope’s clothing items include a chemise dress, empire dress, and pelisse. In <Fig. 41, 42, and 43>, the clothing items worn by Penelope are almost all empire dresses. In <Fig. 43>, the empire dress uses a slightly different silhouette, with a slight overlap of the bodice and a train. the empire dress in <Fig. 37> is embellished with embroidery, beads, ribbons, and colorful pleated designs. In <Fig. 44>, the pelisse with a hood is worn when going out.

The comparative analysis of the distinctive characteristics of Daphne’s and Penelope’s dresses is shown in <Table 1>.

Ⅴ. Conclusion

This study compared and analyzed the distinctive characteristics of women’s costumes in the Netflix series Bridgerton, a drama set in 19th-century England that expresses Regencycore well. Analysis focused on the characters Daphne Bridgerton and Penelope Featherington as representative of upper-class dress. In the drama, Daphne’s costumes include an empire dress, chemise dress, spencer, redingote, pelisse, shawl, and gloves of various colors and materials similar to the dress. Originally, spencers in the Regency era were made in dark colors that contrasted with the pastel or white dresses, but in the drama, the spencer is rendered naturally and elegantly in a similar color to the dress. The empire dresses use a simple form consisting of a deep and wide neckline, a high waist, and short puff sleeves, or a tunic type, in which a decorative skirt is combined with the body of the dress. The sleeves are puff, cap, tulip, or tight, and the necklines are a variety of round, square, trapeze, and other shapes. Overall, the colors are light pastel tones or white, and among them, baby blue is the most prominent. Dresses are expressed purely and elegantly in thin chiffon, lace, and organza, indicating luxury and nobility, with glossy materials such as satin, taffeta, brocade, and velvet also used. There are many patterns of small flowers or foliage. Hairstyles are elegant styles that either hang naturally or are pinned back. Neat and elegant thin necklaces or light ribbons are worn as accessories.

Penelope’s costumes include many colorful dresses embellished on the shoulders and chest, and the colorful and decorative aspects are emphasized with accessories such as colorful gloves, wide waistbands, and large ribbon decorations. In addition to yellow and pink, intense colors such as orange and green colors are primarily used. In addition to satin, various materials such as chiffon, damask, and lace are used overall, the materials are slightly thicker than in Daphne’s costume, and the patterns are larger and more colorful. In addition, embellishments include embroidery, beads, ribbons, and colorful pleated designs. Large ribbon flowers, colorful and bold jewelry, and a poodle perm hairstyle with tight curls define Penelope’s style. The Featherington family emphasize their distinctive appearance, highlighting their place in the social world with colorful accessories and patterns as well as saturated colors such as orange and yellow.

In Bridgerton, women’s clothing most commonly uses a column silhouette with deep and wide necklines, high waistlines, and short puff sleeves. The characteristics of Regency-era fashion, which was influenced by Neoclassicism, are well expressed by silk materials, shawls, gloves, belts, reticules, and hairstyles. The women’s costumes are embellished with trains, luxurious silk materials, gold, and beads— showing the luxury and splendor of the upper class. Daphne’s clothing is neatly and elegantly expressed in a pastel blue color, small patterns or accessories, and hairstyles that hang naturally or are pinned up with natural curls. Penelope’s character is expressed in a lively and active appearance with high saturation, intense colors, large patterns, large and colorful accessories, and tight curls. A comparison of the costumes of Daphne and Penelope shows distinct differences in color, materials, patterns, accessories, and hairstyles; Daphne’s dress is characterized by elegance, while Penelope’s outfits express the luxury and color of upper-class costumes of the Regency era. The Bridgerton drama includes many costume elements of the Regency era, though fashion elements such as bonnets, collerettes, and marmiruk sleeves are not shown. In the Regency era, before the transition to the romantic style period, column-silhouette gowns often had a slightly wider skirt hem than in the 1800s, which is also not expressed in the show. The exact material is difficult to judge from the visual recording. This study is significant in that it analyzed upper-class Regency fashion, which set style trends in the 19th century, as expressed in the OTT format. Future research on the costumes of OTT dramas—an increasingly important visual entertainment format— can offer important insight for the clothing industry.